Sources
Sources and further reading
The text of this section was compiled for general readers from the sources below. The ideas and facts come from them; the wording is new, and any quotations are credited where they appear.
Lectures
Bowyer, Emerson, and Jay A. Clarke. “Allan McNab Virtual Lecture: Toulouse-Lautrec and the Celebrity Culture of Paris.” Lecture, Art Institute of Chicago. YouTube video, 43:26. Posted March 2, 2021. Link
Cachin, Charlotte, and Marina Ferretti Bocquillon. “Symphony of Colors: Paul Signac and Neo-Impressionism.” With Peter Eurlings. Webinar and virtual exhibition tour, Wildenstein Plattner Institute. YouTube video, 1:04:28. Posted October 1, 2026. Link
Cernuschi, Claude. “Historicism to Art Nouveau: Klimt and Ornament.” Lecture, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. YouTube video, 1:16:04. Posted March 20, 2018. Link
Chapin, Mary Weaver. “Intimate Color: The Print Portfolios of Bonnard, Vuillard, and Denis, 1899.” Lecture, Clark Art Institute. YouTube video, 1:02:25. Posted March 7, 2022. Link
Clarke, Jay A. “Dreams and Nightmares at the Fin de Siècle.” Lecture, Art Institute of Chicago. YouTube video, 44:04. Posted December 4, 2025. Link
Cordier, Sylvain. “Paul Mellon Lecture: Painting with Gauguin: A Masterpiece of the Pont-Aven School by Paul Sérusier.” Lecture, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. YouTube video, 1:16:25. Posted November 18, 2020. Link
The Courtauld. “Open Courtauld Hour – Episode 1 S3: Rethinking Gauguin.” Panel with Ketty Gottardo, Caroline Levitt, Linda Goddard, Helen Higgins, and Karen Serres; hosted by Leyla Bumbra and Alice Proctor. The Courtauld, London. YouTube video, 59:13. Posted October 2, 2020. Link
Homburg, Cornelia, with Christopher Riopelle. “Introduction to ‘The Credit Suisse Exhibition: Gauguin Portraits.’” Lecture, The National Gallery, London. YouTube video, 48:10. Posted October 7, 2019. Link
The National Gallery, London. “How Did Neo-Impressionism Shape Modern Art?” Video for the exhibition Radical Harmony: Helene Kröller-Müller's Neo-Impressionists. YouTube video, 11:40. Posted October 16, 2025. Link
Robins, Anna Gruetzner, and Elizabeth Childs, chairs. “Day One: Crossing Borders; Constructing Canons: ‘Post-Impressionism’ in Britain, America and Beyond.” Conference, The Courtauld, London, with the Terra Foundation, 2021. YouTube video, 4:33:44. Posted June 17, 2021. Link
Rudy, Elizabeth, Ute Kuhlemann Falck, and Inger Grimstad. “Opening Lecture—Edvard Munch: Technically Speaking.” Moderated by Lynette Roth. Lecture and panel, Harvard Art Museums. YouTube video, 1:18:09. Posted April 10, 2025. Link
Sloan, Rachel. “Impressions of Modern Life: Gauguin, Redon and Denis.” Talk, The Courtauld, London. YouTube video, 32:45. Posted April 27, 2020. Link
Walsh, John. “Cézanne and Impressionism.” Lecture 1 of 3, “Cézanne's People, Places, and Things.” Lecture, Yale University Art Gallery. YouTube video, 1:12:44. Posted April 9, 2025. Link
Walsh, John. “Cézanne's Last Years and Great Projects.” Lecture, Yale University Art Gallery. YouTube video, 1:13:12. Posted April 9, 2025. Link
Walsh, John. “Van Gogh and the Asylum at Saint-Rémy.” Lecture, Yale University Art Gallery. YouTube video, 1:09:49. Posted April 23, 2019. Link
Walsh, John. “Van Gogh in Arles I: Town, Fields, and Gardens.” Lecture, Yale University Art Gallery. YouTube video, 1:06:58. Posted April 9, 2019. Link
Walsh, John. “Vincent van Gogh's Turning Points: Van Gogh in Paris.” Lecture 2 of 6. Lecture, Yale University Art Gallery. YouTube video, 53:40. Posted October 15, 2018. Link
Walsh, John. “Vincent van Gogh's Turning Points: Van Gogh in the Netherlands.” Lecture 1 of 6. Lecture, Yale University Art Gallery. YouTube video, 57:19. Posted October 8, 2018. Link
Curricula that shaped coverage
Allman, Ricky. Post-Impressionism: The Beginnings of Modern Art. Course guidebook, 24 lectures. The Teaching Company (Wondrium), 2023. Link
College Board. AP Art History Course and Exam Description. Effective Fall 2020. Link
National Gallery of Art. “Teacher Institute 2012: French Impressionism and Post-Impressionism.” Summer seminar for K–12 teachers. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 2012. Archived by the UNT Web Archive. Link
Slavkova, Iveta. “Impressionism / Post-Impressionism.” Course syllabus, AH3000. American University of Paris, Spring 2019. Link
Museum collection records
The National Gallery, London. “Georges Seurat, Bathers at Asnières, 1884.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Georges Seurat, Circus Sideshow (Parade de cirque), 1887–88.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo. “Georges Seurat, Le Chahut, 1889–90.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Lee, Ellen W. “Georges Seurat, Study for The Channel of Gravelines, Petit Fort Philippe, 1890.” In French Paintings and Pastels, 1600–1945: The Collections of the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, edited by Aimee Marcereau DeGalan. Kansas City: The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Musée d'Orsay, Paris. “Georges Seurat, The Circus, 1891.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. “Paul Signac, Opus 217. Against the Enamel of a Background Rhythmic with Beats and Angles, Tones, and Tints, Portrait of M. Félix Fénéon in 1890, 1890.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Paul Signac, Evening Calm, Concarneau, Opus 220 (Allegro Maestoso), 1891.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Musée d'Orsay, Paris. “Henri-Edmond Cross, The Evening Air (L'Air du soir), c. 1893.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven. “Maximilien Luce, The River Sambre in Charleroi, 1896.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp (KMSKA), Flemish Art Collection. “Théo van Rysselberghe, Maria Sèthe at the Harmonium, 1891.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Musée d'Orsay, Paris. “Paul Cézanne, The House of the Hanged Man, Auvers-sur-Oise, 1873.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Paul Cézanne, Mont Sainte-Victoire and the Viaduct of the Arc River Valley, 1882–85.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Paul Cézanne, The Bay of Marseille, Seen from L'Estaque, c. 1885.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Paul Cézanne, Madame Cézanne in a Red Dress, 1888–90.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Paul Cézanne, The Card Players, 1890–92.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Paul Cézanne, The Basket of Apples, c. 1893.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Courtauld Gallery, London. “Paul Cézanne, Still Life with Plaster Cupid, c. 1894.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Philadelphia Museum of Art. “Paul Cézanne, Mont Sainte-Victoire, 1902–04.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Philadelphia Museum of Art. “Paul Cézanne, The Large Bathers, 1900–06.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
National Gallery of Art, Washington. “Paul Cézanne, The Gardener Vallier, 1906.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam. “Vincent van Gogh, The Potato Eaters, 1885.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Vincent van Gogh, Self-Portrait with a Straw Hat, 1887.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Musée Rodin, Paris. “Vincent van Gogh, Portrait of Père Tanguy, 1887.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam. “Vincent van Gogh, Garden with Courting Couples: Square Saint-Pierre, 1887.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven. “Vincent van Gogh, The Night Café, 1888.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The National Gallery, London. “Vincent van Gogh, Sunflowers, 1888.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. “Vincent van Gogh, Portrait of the Postman Joseph Roulin, 1888.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Vincent van Gogh, The Bedroom, 1889.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. “Vincent van Gogh, Irises, 1889.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. “Vincent van Gogh, The Starry Night, 1889.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Vincent van Gogh, Wheat Field with Cypresses, 1889.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Musée d'Orsay, Paris, on Google Arts & Culture. “Vincent van Gogh, Self-Portrait, 1889.” Museum-supplied collection page. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Musée d'Orsay, Paris. “Émile Bernard, Madeleine in the Bois d'Amour, 1888.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
National Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh. “Paul Gauguin, Vision of the Sermon (Jacob Wrestling with the Angel), 1888.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam. “Paul Gauguin, Self-Portrait with Portrait of Emile Bernard (Les Misérables), 1888.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Musée d'Orsay, Paris. “Paul Sérusier, The Talisman (Landscape in the Bois d'Amour), 1888.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Musée d'Orsay, Paris. “Paul Gauguin, Self-Portrait in the Form of a Grotesque Head (Pot anthropomorphe), 1889.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Buffalo AKG Art Museum, Buffalo. “Paul Gauguin, The Yellow Christ, 1889.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Indianapolis Museum of Art at Newfields. “Paul Sérusier, The Seaweed Gatherer, c. 1890.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Paul Gauguin, Ia Orana Maria (Hail Mary), 1891.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Paul Gauguin, Merahi metua no Tehamana (Tehamana Has Many Parents), 1893.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Paul Gauguin, Nave Nave Fenua (Delightful Land), 1893–94.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. “Paul Gauguin, Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?, 1897–98.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Equestrienne (At the Cirque Fernando), 1887–88.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Moulin Rouge: La Goulue, 1891.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Ambassadeurs: Aristide Bruant, 1892.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, At the Moulin Rouge, 1892–95.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Divan Japonais, 1892–93.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Édouard Vuillard, Self-Portrait with Waroquy, 1889.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Kunsthaus Zürich. “Pierre Bonnard, Decorative Panels: Women in the Garden, 1890–91.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
National Gallery of Art, Washington. “Édouard Vuillard, Woman in a Striped Dress, 1895.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Édouard Vuillard, Interior with Pink Wallpaper I, 1899.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Pierre Bonnard, Houses in the Courtyard, 1895–96.” Collection record (image shown: Petit Palais impression). Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Musée d'Orsay, Paris. “Maurice Denis, Homage to Cézanne, 1900.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Musée d'Orsay, Paris. “Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, The Poor Fisherman, 1881.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Odilon Redon, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Odilon Redon, The Eye, Like a Strange Balloon Moves Towards Infinity, 1882.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Odilon Redon, There Was Perhaps a First Vision Attempted in the Flower, 1883.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Odilon Redon, Death: My Irony Surpasses All Others, 1889.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Musée d'Orsay, Paris. “Odilon Redon, Closed Eyes, 1890.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Odilon Redon, Bouquet of Flowers, c. 1900–1905.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The National Gallery, London. “Henri Rousseau, Surprised!, 1891.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. “Henri Rousseau, The Sleeping Gypsy, 1897.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. “Henri Rousseau, The Dream, 1910.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. “James Ensor, Christ's Entry into Brussels in 1889, 1888–early 1890s.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Neue Pinakothek, Munich. “Fernand Khnopff, I Lock My Door upon Myself, 1891.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Nasjonalmuseet, Oslo. “Edvard Munch, The Scream, 1893.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
MUNCH, Oslo. “Edvard Munch, Anxiety, 1894.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Wien Museum, Vienna. “Gustav Klimt, Pallas Athene, 1898.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Belvedere, Vienna. “Gustav Klimt, The Kiss, c. 1907–09.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Ferdinand Hodler, The Dream of the Shepherd, 1896.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. “Giovanni Segantini, Spring in the Alps, 1897.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Regione Lombardia, Lombardia Beni Culturali. “Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo, The Fourth Estate, 1898–1901.” Catalogue record, Comune di Milano, Galleria d'Arte Moderna. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven. “Walter Sickert, Gatti's Hungerford Palace of Varieties. Second Turn of Katie Lawrence, c. 1888.” Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Reference sources
Amory, Dita. "Georges Seurat (1859–1891) and Neo-Impressionism." In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2004. Link
Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney. “Walter Sickert, Gatti's Hungerford Palace of Varieties. Second Turn of Katie Lawrence” (later version, c. 1903). Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Art Institute of Chicago. “Cat. 4, The Bay of Marseille, Seen from L'Estaque, c. 1885.” In Cezanne Paintings and Watercolors at the Art Institute of Chicago. Digital publication. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Art Institute of Chicago. “Cat. 10, The Basket of Apples, c. 1893.” In Cezanne Paintings and Watercolors at the Art Institute of Chicago. Digital publication. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Art Institute of Chicago. Death: My Irony Surpasses All Others, by Odilon Redon. Accession 1920.1651 (second impression). Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Auricchio, Laura. “The Nabis and Decorative Painting.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2004. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Cramer, Charles, and Kim Grant. “Neo-Impressionism Part II, an Introduction.” In Smarthistory. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Cramer, Charles, and Kim Grant. “The Pont-Aven School and Synthetism.” In Smarthistory, June 29, 2020. Link
Harris, Beth, and Steven Zucker. “I Lock my Door Upon Myself, by Fernand Khnopff.” In Smarthistory, August 9, 2015. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Harris, Beth, and Steven Zucker. “Paul Cézanne, The Basket of Apples.” In Smarthistory. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Harvey, Ben. “Paul Cézanne, Mont Sainte-Victoire.” Essay, with video by Steven Zucker and Beth Harris. In Smarthistory. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Hauptman, Jodi. Beyond the Visible: The Art of Odilon Redon. Exhibition brochure. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2005. Link
Iker, Annemarie. “Henri Rousseau.” Artist essay. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2021. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
J. Paul Getty Museum. “19th-Century Landscape by Giovanni Segantini Joins the Getty Collections.” Press release, January 14, 2019. Link
Kang, Cindy. “Paul Gauguin (1848–1903).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, March 2011. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Larson, Barbara. “Evolution and Degeneration in the Early Work of Odilon Redon.” Nineteenth-Century Art Worldwide 2, no. 1 (Spring 2003). Link
Los Angeles County Museum of Art. À Edgar Poe (To Edgar Poe), by Odilon Redon, 1882. Accession AC1997.14.1.1-.7. Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Ambassadeurs: Aristide Bruant, by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, 1892. Accession 32.88.11. Collection record. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Link
Metropolitan Museum of Art. “Cezanne's Card Players.” Essay by Met staff, August 1, 2022. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Metropolitan Museum of Art. “Madame Cézanne.” Press release for the exhibition, November 19, 2014–March 15, 2015. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
MUNCH, Oslo. Anxiety, by Edvard Munch, 1896. Lithograph, MM.G.00204. Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid. “Theo van Rysselberghe.” Artist biography. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Galleria d'Arte Moderna (GAM), Milan. “The Fourth Estate.” Museum page on Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo, Il Quarto Stato. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
National Gallery of Art, Washington. Death: My Irony Surpasses All Others, by Odilon Redon, 1889. Accession 1943.3.7381, Rosenwald Collection. Collection record. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
National Gallery of Art, Washington. There Was Perhaps a First Vision Attempted in the Flower, by Odilon Redon, 1883. Accession 1951.10.459, Rosenwald Collection. Collection record. Link
National Gallery, London. “The Sunflowers.” Paintings in depth. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Tate Britain. “Walter Sickert.” Exhibition guide. London: Tate. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Voorhies, James. “Paul Cézanne (1839–1906).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2004. Link
Weidinger, Corina. “Fatigue, Machinisme, and Visual Spectacle in Maximilien Luce's L'Aciérie.” Nineteenth-Century Art Worldwide 12, no. 2 (Autumn 2013). Link
Young, Alison. “Sickert and the Art of Music Hall.” New English Art Club. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link
Zucker, Steven, and Beth Harris. “Paul Cézanne, The Large Bathers.” In Smarthistory, 2015. Video. Accessed October 28, 2026. Link