Sources
Sources and further reading
The text of this section was compiled for general readers from the sources below. The ideas and facts come from them; the wording is new, and any quotations are credited where they appear.
Lectures
Brown, David Blayney, and Amy Concannon. “The Making of Turner's Modern World.” Curators' conversation (Tate Britain curators), Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth. YouTube video, 1:04:43. 2021. Link
Carter, Sarah. “The Art of Thinking through Collaboration: Fuseli, Blake and Darwin.” Frank Davis Memorial Lecture, The Courtauld, London. YouTube video, 54:41. 2022. Link
Hokanson, Alison, and Joanna Sheers Seidenstein. “Curator Talk: Caspar David Friedrich: The Soul of Nature.” Curator talk, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. YouTube video, 46:34. 2025. Link
Ilchman, Frederick, and Stephanie Stepanek. “Goya: The Most Spanish of Artists.” Lecture, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. YouTube video, 1:22:05. 2014. Link
Kimball, Roger. “Delacroix: The Persistence of Classicism.” Lecture, New York Studio School. YouTube video, 40:07. Recorded December 15, 1998. Link
Kopp, Edouard. Gallery talk on Théodore Géricault's Mutiny on the Raft drawing. Harvard Art Museums. YouTube video, 1:27. 2017. Link
Lyles, Anne. “J.M.W. Turner and John Constable: Rivals or Colleagues?” Lecture, Friends of Kenwood lecture series. YouTube video, 1:04:17. 2025. Link
Morgan, Matthew. “Turner: Painting The Fighting Temeraire.” Gallery talk, The National Gallery, London. YouTube video, 25:56. 2016. Link
Myrone, Martin. “Georgian Provocations II: The Haunted Eighteenth Century: Fuseli's The Nightmare.” Public Lecture Course, Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art, London. YouTube video, 1:29:22. November 3, 2022. Link
Nemerov, Alexander. “Herodotus among the Trees.” Lecture 1 of “The Forest: America in the 1830s”, the 66th A. W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts, National Gallery of Art, Washington. YouTube video, 1:23:07. 2017. Link
Quinn, Karen. “American Landscape Painting: Albert Bierstadt and the American Land.” Lecture, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. YouTube video, 1:09:56. 2014. Link
Rewald, Sabine. “Caspar David Friedrich: Romancing the Moon.” Lecture, New York Studio School. YouTube video, 57:50. Recorded March 13, 2002. Link
Riopelle, Christopher. “Delacroix: Dead and Alive.” Lecture, The National Gallery, London. YouTube video, 54:24. 2016. Link
Stratford, Linda, and James Romaine. “Getting Political: Gericault's The Raft of the Medusa.” Pre-lecture interview, Lander University. YouTube video, 9:15. 2025. Link
Tomlinson, Janis A. “Francisco Goya's Prints in Context.” Lecture, Yale University Art Gallery. YouTube video, 55:21. 2016. Link
Tomlinson, Janis A. “From Capricho to Fatal Consequences: Goya's Imagery of War, 1809–1814.” Lecture, Townsend Center for the Humanities, University of California, Berkeley. YouTube video, 48:34. 2011. Link
Wiggins, Colin. “John Constable: The Radical Landscape of The Hay Wain.” Gallery talk, The National Gallery, London. YouTube video, 31:02. 2017. Link
Curricula
College Board. AP Art History Course and Exam Description. Image set, Later Europe and Americas: works 106–109, 111 and 112, numbered from secondary listings of the current 250-work set. Link
Extended Learning Institute, Northern Virginia Community College. “Chapter 10: 1800–1848—Industrial Revolution Part I.” In Art History II. Lumen Learning. CC BY 4.0. Link
Universidad de Zaragoza. “28215 – 19th Century Art.” Syllabus, Degree in History of Art, 2022. Link
University of Manchester. “AHCP33192 Romanticism.” Course unit, BA History of Art, 2022 course catalogue. Link
Museum collection records
The Art Institute of Chicago. “Lion Hunt” (1860–61), Eugène Delacroix. Collection record, 1922.404. Link
Art UK. “The Bard” (c. 1817), John Martin. Record for the Laing Art Gallery, Newcastle, version, TWCMS : C6976; the Laing has no online collection record. Link
Brooklyn Museum. “The Great Red Dragon and the Woman Clothed with the Sun (Rev. 12: 1-4)” (ca. 1803–1805), William Blake. Collection record, 15.368. Link
Centre des monuments nationaux, Arc de Triomphe, Paris. “Dossier thématique: les décors sculptés de l'Arc de triomphe.” Teachers' dossier, official site. Link
Centre des monuments nationaux, Arc de Triomphe, Paris. “The Sculpted Groups.” Official site page (on François Rude, Le Départ des volontaires de 1792, 1833–1836); the monument has no collection record. Link
The Cleveland Museum of Art. “The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons, 16 October 1834” (1835), Joseph Mallord William Turner. Collection record, 1942.647. Link
Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, Bentonville, Arkansas. “Kindred Spirits” (1849), Asher B. Durand. Collection record, 2010.106. Link
Detroit Institute of Arts. “The Nightmare” (1781), Henry Fuseli. Collection record, 55.5.A. Link
Hamburger Kunsthalle. “Caspar David Friedrich in seinem Atelier” (1811), Georg Friedrich Kersting. Collection record, HK-1285. Link
Hamburger Kunsthalle. “Das Eismeer” (1823/24), Caspar David Friedrich. Collection record, HK-1051. Link
Hamburger Kunsthalle. “Die Hülsenbeckschen Kinder” (1805/06), Philipp Otto Runge. Collection record, HK-1012. Link
Hamburger Kunsthalle. “Der Morgen (erste Fassung)” (1808), Philipp Otto Runge. Collection record, HK-1016. Link
Hamburger Kunsthalle. “Wanderer über dem Nebelmeer” (c. 1817), Caspar David Friedrich. Collection record, HK-5161 (permanent loan from the Stiftung Hamburger Kunstsammlungen). Link
Historic England. “Houses of Parliament and The Palace of Westminster.” National Heritage List for England, list entry 1226284. Link
Kunst Museum Winterthur, Reinhart am Stadtgarten. “Kreidefelsen auf Rügen” (1818), Caspar David Friedrich. Object page; no inventory number is given. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Audio guide, stop 4028, commentary by Scott Manning Stevens, Syracuse University, on Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851), Emanuel Leutze. Heard on the collection record page. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Heart of the Andes” (1859), Frederic Edwin Church. Collection record, 09.95. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Lion and Serpent no. 1” (modeled 1838, possibly cast ca. 1850), Antoine-Louis Barye. Collection record, 10.108.3. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Lion and Serpent no. 3 (sketch)” (modeled 1832), Antoine-Louis Barye. Collection record, 40.12.5. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Plate 15 from ‘The Disasters of War’: And there is no help (Y no hai remedio)” (1810), Francisco de Goya. Collection record, 32.62.17. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Plate 15 from ‘The Disasters of War’: And there is nothing to be done (Y no hai remedio)” (1810, published 1863), Francisco de Goya. Collection record, 51.530.2(15). Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Plate 43 from ‘Los Caprichos’: The sleep of reason produces monsters (El sueño de la razon produce monstruos)” (1799), Francisco de Goya. Collection record, 18.64(43). Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Plate 44 from ‘The Disasters of War’: I saw it (Yo lo vi)” (1810, published 1863), Francisco de Goya. Collection record, 51.530.2(44). Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak” (1863), Albert Bierstadt. Collection record, 07.123. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Grounds” (ca. 1825), John Constable. Collection record, 50.145.8. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Two Men Contemplating the Moon” (ca. 1825–30), Caspar David Friedrich. Collection record, 2000.51. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “View from Mount Holyoke, Northampton, Massachusetts, after a Thunderstorm—The Oxbow” (1836), Thomas Cole. Collection record, 08.228 (Spanish-language view of the record). Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “Washington Crossing the Delaware” (1851), Emanuel Leutze. Collection record, 97.34. Link
Ministère de la Culture, Plateforme ouverte du patrimoine (POP), Joconde database. “Femmes d'Alger dans leur appartement” (1834), Eugène Delacroix. Catalogue record 000PE000939 for the Louvre painting. Link
Ministère de la Culture, Plateforme ouverte du patrimoine (POP), Joconde database. “Mort de Sardanapale” (1827), Eugène Delacroix. Catalogue record 000PE000899 for the Louvre painting. Link
Minneapolis Institute of Art. “Convulsionists of Tangier” (1837–38), Eugène Delacroix. Collection record, 73.42.3. Link
Minneapolis Institute of Art. “Self-Portrait with Dr. Arrieta” (1820), Francisco de Goya. Collection record, 52.14. Link
Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon. “La Monomane de l'envie (Portrait of a Woman Suffering from Obsessive Envy, also known as The Hyena of the Salpêtrière)” (c. 1819–1822), Théodore Géricault. Collection page. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Le 28 juillet 1830. La Liberté guidant le peuple” (1830), Eugène Delacroix. Collections database, RF 129. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Bonaparte visitant les pestiférés de Jaffa (11 mars 1799)” (1804), Antoine-Jean Gros. Collections database, INV 5064. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Course de chevaux, dit traditionnellement Le derby de 1821 à Epsom” (1821), Théodore Géricault. Collections database, MI 708. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Cuirassier blessé, quittant le feu” (1814), Théodore Géricault. Collections database, INV 4886. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Dante et Virgile, dit aussi La barque de Dante” (1822), Eugène Delacroix. Collections database, INV 3820. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Esther se parant”, Théodore Chassériau. Collections database, RF 25938 (preparatory drawing). Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Esther se parant pour être présentée au roi Assuérus, dit aussi La toilette d'Esther” (1841), Théodore Chassériau. Collections database, RF 3900. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Femmes d'Alger dans leur appartement” (1834), Eugène Delacroix. Collections database, INV 3824. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Mort de Sardanapale” (1827), Eugène Delacroix. Collections database, RF 2346. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Une odalisque, dite La grande odalisque” (1814), Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres. Collections database, RF 1158. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Officier de chasseurs à cheval de la Garde impériale, chargeant” (1812), Théodore Géricault. Collections database, INV 4885. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Le Radeau de la Méduse” (1818–1819), Théodore Géricault. Collections database, INV 4884. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Scènes des massacres de Scio. Familles grecques attendant la mort ou l'esclavage” (1824), Eugène Delacroix. Collections database, INV 3823. Link
Musée du Louvre, Paris. “Trois études de femmes arabes” (1832), Eugène Delacroix. Collections database, RF 3719 (drawing). Link
Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid. “The 2nd of May 1808 in Madrid, or ‘The Fight against the Mamelukes’” (1814), Francisco de Goya. Collection record, P000748. Link
Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid. “The 3rd of May 1808 in Madrid, or ‘The Executions’” (1814), Francisco de Goya. Collection record, P000749. Link
Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid. “The Family of Carlos IV” (1800), Francisco de Goya. Collection record, P000726. Link
Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid. “Saturn” (1820–1823), Francisco de Goya. Collection record, P000763. Link
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. “Slave Ship (Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying, Typhoon Coming On)” (1840), Joseph Mallord William Turner. Collection record, 99.22. Link
National Gallery of Art, Washington. “The Great Red Dragon and the Woman Clothed with the Sun” (c. 1805), William Blake. Collection record, 1943.3.8999. Link
National Gallery of Art, Washington. “Keelmen Heaving in Coals by Moonlight” (1835), Joseph Mallord William Turner. Collection record, 1942.9.86. Link
National Gallery of Art, Washington. “Lumber Schooners at Evening on Penobscot Bay” (1863), Fitz Henry Lane. Collection record, 1980.29.1. Link
National Gallery of Art, Washington. “Niagara” (1857), Frederic Edwin Church. Collection record, 2014.79.10. Link
National Gallery of Art, Washington. “The Voyage of Life: Childhood” (1842), Thomas Cole. Collection record, 1971.16.1. Link
National Gallery of Art, Washington. West Building audio tour, stop 701, on Wivenhoe Park, Essex (1816), John Constable.
National Gallery of Art, Washington. “Wivenhoe Park, Essex” (1816), John Constable. Collection record, 1942.9.10. Link
The National Gallery, London. “An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump” (1768), Joseph Wright of Derby. Collection record, NG725. Link
The National Gallery, London. “The Fighting Temeraire” (1839), Joseph Mallord William Turner. Collection record, NG524. Link
The National Gallery, London. “The Hay Wain” (1821), John Constable. Collection record, NG1207. Link
The National Gallery, London. “Rain, Steam, and Speed – The Great Western Railway” (1844), Joseph Mallord William Turner. Collection record, NG538. Link
New-York Historical Society. “The Course of Empire: Destruction” (1836), Thomas Cole. Collection record, 1858.4. Link
New-York Historical Society, on Google Arts & Culture. “The Course of Empire: Destruction” (1836), Thomas Cole. Museum-supplied page, used to cross-check the collection record. Link
Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Albertinum, Galerie Neue Meister. “Blick auf Dresden bei Vollmondschein” (1839), Johan Christian Dahl. Collection record, Gal.-Nr. 2206 D. Link
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Alte Nationalgalerie. “Abtei im Eichwald” (1809/1810), Caspar David Friedrich. Collection record, NG 8/85. Link
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Alte Nationalgalerie. “Caspar David Friedrich in seinem Atelier” (c. 1812), Georg Friedrich Kersting. Collection record, A I 931. Link
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Alte Nationalgalerie. “Mönch am Meer” (1808–1810), Caspar David Friedrich. Collection record, NG 9/85. Link
Tate, London. “Newton” (1795–c. 1805), William Blake. Collection record and catalogue entry, N05058. Link
Tate, London. “Snow Storm: Hannibal and his Army Crossing the Alps” (exhibited 1812), Joseph Mallord William Turner. Collection record and catalogue entry, N00490. Link
UK Parliament. Living Heritage, “The Architects” (Charles Barry and A.W.N. Pugin).
UK Parliament. Living Heritage, page on the rebuilding of the Palace of Westminster after the 1834 fire.
Victoria and Albert Museum, London. “In a Shoreham Garden” (ca. 1830), Samuel Palmer. Collection record, P.32-1926. Link
Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. “Christ on the Sea of Galilee” (1854), Eugène Delacroix. Collection record, 37.186. Link
Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. “Lion and Snake, No. 1”, Antoine-Louis Barye. Collection record, 27.157. Link
Yale Center for British Art, New Haven. “The Ancient of Days; Frontispiece (Plate 1)”, from Europe. A Prophecy, Copy A (1794), William Blake. Collection record, B1992.8.4(1). Link
Yale Center for British Art, New Haven. “The Bard” (ca. 1817), John Martin. Collection record, B1981.25.439. Link
Yale Center for British Art, New Haven. “Cloud Study” (ca. 1821), John Constable. Collection record, B1981.25.148. Link
Yale Center for British Art, New Haven. “Hadleigh Castle, The Mouth of the Thames—Morning after a Stormy Night” (1829), John Constable. Collection record, B1977.14.42. Link
Yale Center for British Art, New Haven. “The Harvest Moon” (ca. 1833), Samuel Palmer. Record in the online exhibition The Critique of Reason: Romantic Art, 1760–1860, B1977.14.65. Link
Reference sources
Bauer and Haug. “Nebulöse Wege.” transfer 3 (2024). Provenance report on Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer über dem Nebelmeer. Link
Cape Ann Museum. “Lumber Schooners at Evening on Penobscot Bay.” Catalogue entry, Fitz Henry Lane Online. Accessed October 29, 2026. Link
Kunst Museum Winterthur. Work list of Caspar David Friedrich highlights (Werkliste). PDF. Accessed October 29, 2026. Link
Kunst Museum Winterthur. Digital guide, Reinhart am Stadtgarten. Accessed October 29, 2026. Link
The Metropolitan Museum of Art. “Thomas Cole, View from Mount Holyoke, Northampton, Massachusetts, after a Thunderstorm—The Oxbow.” Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Accessed October 29, 2026. Link
Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon. Focus sheet on Théodore Géricault, La Monomane de l'envie. PDF, 2019. Accessed October 29, 2026. Link
The National Gallery, London. “An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump.” Catalogue entry, Egerton 2000 catalogue. Accessed October 29, 2026. Link
National Gallery of Art, Washington. Article on Frederic Edwin Church, Niagara. Stories. Accessed October 29, 2026. Link
National Gallery of Art, Washington. Exhibition checklist for Frederic Edwin Church, Niagara. PDF, 2026. Accessed October 29, 2026. Link
Sammlung Oskar Reinhart am Römerholz, Winterthur. Press images (Pressebilder). PDF. Accessed October 29, 2026. Link
Smarthistory. Essay on François Rude, Le Départ des volontaires de 1792 (La Marseillaise). Accessed October 29, 2026. Link
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Object sheet for Caspar David Friedrich, Abtei im Eichwald. PDF, museum-digital. Accessed October 29, 2026. Link
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Object sheet for Georg Friedrich Kersting, Caspar David Friedrich in seinem Atelier. PDF, museum-digital. Accessed October 29, 2026. Link
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Object sheet for Caspar David Friedrich, Mönch am Meer. PDF, museum-digital. Accessed October 29, 2026. Link